Benny Carters Biography and Work

Dates (Birth/Death/major milestones Benny Carter was born on the 8th day of August in 1907. He was an American jazz musician (Yanow, 168). He was a bandleader, an arranger as well as a music composer. He was also a clarinetist and a talented alto saxophonist. He later died on the 12th day of July 2003. The artist enjoyed and dominated eight decades of singing. In 1987, he won the Lifetime Achievement Award after successful nomination into the award’s category.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Benny Carter’s Biography and Work specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He also won the Best Jazz Instrumental Solo award way back in 1994. However, he was a nominee in several Jazz and RB categories such as the Best Jazz Instrumental Performance – Group and the Best Jazz Instrumental Solo in 1986 and 1993 respectively. Birthplace and Major Locations during life. Benny Carter’s birthplace was i n New York City. In 1935, the Jazz artist moved to Europe. His main purpose for relocating was to work for the British Broadcasting Corporation as a staff arranger and also join Lewis’s orchestra as a trumpet player. He traveled widely across Europe for three consecutive years while recording jazz music with other renowned artists in the region. In 1948, he returned home and shortly moved to Los Angeles. He formed a powerful orchestra team while in Los Angeles (Berger 77). Musical Training The Jazz artist was not trained in music at the initial stages of his career. However, he later joined concert, seminar and music classes at Princeton University after being convinced by Morroe Berger. The latter was a professor of Sociology at the institution. He was awarded an honorary masters degree in humanities by the institution. Performance Instruments Benny Carter was trained by his mother how to play piano at a very tender age. At the age of fifteen years, he was in a position to t each himself how to play piano and other instruments. The top bands in New York also professionalized his skills in singing and playing vital instruments (Martin 6). Historical Importance He strongly presented the beauty and value of music in three major genres, namely jazz, big band, and the swing.Advertising Looking for research paper on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Writing or composing styles The artist wrote the songs by himself. There were limited songs that were co-written in his large collection of musical compositions. Method of composing He performed in group bands. He was also a soloist who composed and performed in large orchestras. Musical Innovations and Inventions information are not available in this area.  Interesting facts He divorced three times and finally settled with the fifth wife He was the only male in a family of six children. He was also referred to as the king by other musicians and fans of his music. Interactions He intensively interacted with the top bands in New York during his early life in a music career. He interacted with Miley, who was a superb player of the trumpet. The artist worked with BBC as a music arranger. Major types of compositions He was a music arranger, a sideman, songwriter, and bandleader. Occupation Benny Carter made a living as a musical arranger, composer, leader of various bands, and an outstanding musician. Family Life The Jazz artist married in 1925 although the wife died after merely after three years of marriage. She suffered from a serious bout of pneumonia. However, he married four more times and eventually settled with Hilma Ollila Arons as the fifth wife. Although they got married in 1979, the couple had known each other since 1940. The artist divorced three wives. Major works Some of the major works of Benny Carter included Only Trust Your Heart When Lights Are Low and Gone with the Wind. He wrote these songs by himse lf. His compositions were interpreted by almost fifteen artists due to the perceived complexity. In the songs above, he blended them quite well with instruments bearing in mind that he was also conversant with playing several musical instruments (Dicaire 169). Works Cited Berger, Morroe. Benny Carter, a Life in American Music. London: Scarecrow Press, 1982. Print.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Benny Carter’s Biography and Work specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Dicaire, David. Jazz Musicians of the Early Years, to 1945. North Carolina: McFarland Company, Inc. Publishers, 2003. Print. Martin, Henry. Jazz: The First 100 Years. Thomson: Wadsworth, 2005. Print. Yanow, Scott. Jazz on Record: The First Sixty Years. New York: Backbeat Books, 2003. Print. This research paper on Benny Carter’s Biography and Work was written and submitted by user Braelynn Klein to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The History and Business of Making Lump Charcoal

The History and Business of Making Lump Charcoal Charcoal is a formless mass of carbon and can be made from most carbonaceous materials. It is one of the oldest of man-made fuels and has been prepared under the ground for a thousand years. Charcoal in lump form is still a major source of energy throughout the world and unfortunately, is one of the main causes of deforestation in the World. Historical Charcoal Production Wood charcoal production dates back to ancient human prehistory when  stacks of wood logs on their ends were formed into a pyramidal pile. Openings were created at the bottom of the pile and attached to a central flue for circulating air. The whole woodpile was either constructed in an earth covered pit or covered with clay above ground. A wood fire was started at the flue base and gradually smoldered and spread up and out. Ancient charcoal pits, under average conditions, yielded about 60 percent of the total wood by volume, but only 25% by weight, of charcoal product. Even by the seventeenth century, advances in technology yielded nearly 90 percent efficiency and was a skill that took years to learn and a major investment in kilns and retorts which had long replaced the pit method. Current Charcoal Production Much like the old process, the modern commercial charcoal process is to heat wood with little or no air present which takes special but simple equipment. In the United States, wood is the primary material used for charcoal and is generally procured in the form of residue from sawmills - slabs and edgings. Sawmills love to find users of this material because of environmental problems with burning and disposal of mill wastes. Where there are sawmills, there is an available raw product. The United States Forest Service has estimated that there are nearly 2,000 charcoal-producing units in the United States, including brick kilns, concrete and masonry block kilns, sheet steel kilns, and retorts (a steel metal building). The state of Missouri produces a significant portion of this national charcoal product (they have until recently had less stringent environmental regulations) and 98 percent of all charcoal is produced in the eastern United States. While charcoal can be made from any number of natural materials, hardwoods such as hickory, oak, maple, and fruit-woods are favored. They have unique aromas and tend to produce a better grade of charcoal. Better grades of charcoal come from raw materials with low sulfur content. The uses of charcoal may surprise you. Besides being the fuel that cooks steaks, hot dogs, and hamburgers on a Sunday picnic, charcoal is used in many other processes. It is used in certain metallurgical purifying treatments and as a filter to remove organic compounds such as chlorine, gasoline, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals from water and air. Activated charcoal, which has a super absorptive surface, is growing in use as a purifier. It is used in purifying and refining metals and in the gas masks that were used during the Gulf War. NutraSweet  uses activated charcoal to transform their product into a powder. Activated charcoal is used as an antidote for many types of poisons and is touted as an effective anti-flatulent. Lump Charcoal as a Business Most charcoal manufacturers sell their product as a briquette. This market has been dominated by several companies to include Kingsford, Royal Oak, and major grocery market brands. These companies may or may not make lump charcoal which is an alternate product that has some advantages and has potential as a small start-up business. Some new and exciting grill technologies actually require charcoal in lump form. An entrepreneur hoping to survive in the charcoal industry will require originality and very good and aggressive marketing. Many small companies have survived but most have not made it big. Theyve found that their potential in the niche charcoal market is by making natural hardwood lump charcoal. Innovative ideas like developing a product in a bag that has a fuse, which when lit will ignite the charcoal. This quick light product combined with an easy-to-use paraffin coated container filled with natural charcoal has been a modest success in some local markets. A major hurdle is creating an appealing package. Technical problems with storage make for unappealing packages and can affect sales. You may find your bag on the bottom shelf in the back of the store because of a plain package. You may also have a problem finding distributors that handle small volumes. There is also the potential for other products. Wood charcoal has a low sulfur content, unlike coal or petroleum products. This wood charcoal can be used where other forms of carbon cannot. Developing a specialty activated charcoal for filtration of consumables like air and water is possible. This low sulfur charcoal product would be sold to a large manufacturer of activated carbon like Calgon Carbon of Pittsburgh, PA. Starting a Charcoal Business In addition to the raw material, you will have to have an area suitable for heating the material while allowing only a minimal amount of air circulation. This may be a brick kiln or you may opt for a type of metal building called a retort. You can expect to pay up to several hundred thousand dollars for one of these. You also must develop a sorting and crushing operation. The wood that has been cooked is smaller than its original size by about one-third. It must be broken down into marketable pieces. This would have to be done by a customized piece of equipment made by a made-to-order machine shop. There is no reasonable cost estimate here - youve got to do a lot of leg work. Then you have to bag or package the carbon. Bagging machines are readily available from bagging equipment supply companies. Charcoal presents somewhat of a bagging problem due to a large variance in the sizes of the piece. These problems are not impossible to correct and a bagging line could cost you as much as $100 thousand. You can get less expensive ones. The best strategy for making a business success in lump charcoal is to keep the market local or regional. You might link up with a grill or outdoor oven company and combine your marketing efforts. Advertise the product as superior, natural charcoal that has advantages over briquettes. Many people are not aware that charcoal is available in this all-natural form. Advantages of Lump Charcoal Lump charcoal is an all-natural, 100 percent hardwood product with no additives.Natural charcoal heats faster than briquettes, so food can be cooked over natural charcoal within 5 to 7 minutes after lighting.Lump charcoal can be lit without lighter fluid and with just a match and some newspaper - this means no off-flavors.One pound of hardwood charcoal produces the equivalent heat of two pounds of briquette charcoal. Disadvantages of Lump Charcoal Although lump charcoal is growing in popularity, consumer demand still lags behind formed charcoal briquettes.Even though lump charcoal is a more efficient heat producer, its current price is nearly twice that of briquettes.Lump charcoal is bulkier, has odd shapes, and crushes more easily. It tends to become dusty and flakes off.

Indicative Marking Criteria Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Indicative Marking Criteria - Essay Example Animal textile is the most widespread source of fabric that comes in the form of hair, fur and skin from sheep, goats and camel among others. Several entities similarly find plant fabric alluring, as most of their extracts are cool and can be put on during the summer (Gilman et al. 2011, pg. 108). It is for this reason that the industry players consider cotton, hemp, pineapple and bamboo of great significance in their daily operations. Minerals also act as sources of raw materials with the likes of asbestos and basalt coming in handy (Wilderer 2011, pg. 56). The same applies to synthetic fabric, aramid strands, and metal fibres. Given the advancement in technology, most of the industry players use machines to extract the textile from their sources. Taking such a measure comes in handy in making sure that the material maintains its high-quality nature. After the completion of the abstraction process, the textile is then subjected to a spinning procedure, which is the method of generating yarns from the extracted textile. In carrying out spinning, different types of fibers are whirled together with the aim of making a stronger kind of yarn (Mishra 2010, pg. 147). In as much as spinning is the initial production step, it is vital in the textile manufacturing industry, for it assists in ensuring that the finished products are of high quality. Upon completion of the spinning process, the produced yarns are then directed to a loom for the weaving procedure. Weaving involves interlinking a set of longer threads frequently known as warps against an additional set identified as the weft (Miller et al. 2012, pg. 89). Interlacing is routinely done at right angles, with the product being a fabric. Ideally, the warp threads often run the length of the fabric, while the weft runs horizontally. This process is always undertaken in a loom, as it can securely hold the warp threads as the weft fabrics are knitted

The Big Weight Dilemma Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Big Weight Dilemma - Term Paper Example A person is considered obese when the BMI measurement is 30 or more (Solomon, Berg and Martin, 2004, p. 892). Obesity is an acute case of malnutrition. And that it occurs when there is an increase in the size of fat cells or when there is an increase in the number of fat cells, or both. (Salomon, Berg and Martin, p. 892) There are numerous scholarly work and medical research that explain the causes and dynamics behind the problem. For instance, some studies suggest how obesity can be genetically inherited. However, the most widely recognized cause is primarily overeating and the sheer amount of fatty food intake that accumulates during childhood and in many cases until the adult life. There are also experts who point to the role played by social and lifestyle factors because of the patterns of food consumption and the physical activity level prevalent in a particular society. (Mooney, Knox and Schacht, 2010, p. 41). This is the reason why obesity is most pronounced in affluent countr ies. In lower income countries, the incidence of obesity is concentrated in urban areas and in people belonging to higher class (UK 2004, p. 48). Health Risk Obesity is a health problem and it is a cause of concern. This is because this health condition increases the risk for several illnesses such as diabetes, several types of cancer, heart disease, hypertension, arthritis, asthma and other health problems. The World Health Organization reported that it is included in the top 19 health problems and that it contributes to about 300,000 deaths annually in the United States alone (Salomon, Berg and Martin, p. 892). A recent study suggested that obesity will shorten the average life expectancy of people by at least two to five years over the next fifty years, reversing the mostly steady increase in life expectancy that has occurred over the past two centuries (Money, Knox and Schacht, p. 40). Now these are disturbing because statistics depict an increasing trend in America. The latest figures released by the government show that more than 66 percent of American adults age 20 and older are overweight and 32 percent are obese (Hoeger and Hoeger, 2009, p. 149). From 2007 to 2008, it was revealed that at least 17 percent of the US children and adolescents are obese, which is roughly 12.5 million: 10.4 percent of 2-5 year-olds, 19.6 percent of 6-11 year-olds and 18.1 of 12-19 year-olds (O’Dea and Eriksen, 2010, p. 86). In addition to the health risk factors, obesity can also take its toll on the healthcare spending in the United States. By 2018, it is estimated that the medical cost associated with obesity will rise to about $344 billion or about 22 percent of the gross domestic product of the United States. This variable is particularly important especially that the overall cost of health care today is increasingly becoming less accessible to people. Conclusion Having, clearly identified the cause for the high incidence of obesity in America, one could say tha t it is easy to design interventions and solutions in order to deal with the problem. However, experts do not see the trend getting reversed anytime soon. I thin this is because solutions entail lifestyle changes, which is difficult for people to undertake. Also, obesity is widely seen as merely an indirect precursor to many health problems that is why people are taking

The structure of the business Essay Example for Free

The structure of the business Essay As you can see from the organisational chart above, Venetian Ices LTD is a respectful size. As from the diagram above it is obvious that there is a large span of control and a reasonable chain of command, this means that communication is very accurate as there is less levels for messages to pass through before the message finally reaches the desired person. Managers are also at an advantage as they are less remote from the lower level of hierarchy, these managers as a result are more in touch with subordinates as there are less managers. Also as there is a small chain of command and a large span of control, managers have more responsibilities, this may at first seem as a disadvantage but after consideration, it is obvious that under the circumstances more delegation will occur meaning subordinates will have more to do. As a result of this employees will come more motivated as there is more of a responsibility handed to them. However a foremost disadvantage is that as managers have a wider range of control, then they may lose control of what their many subordinates are doing. In most businesses there are 4 main functions- Marketing, Production, Finance and Personnel. The production function which I am concerned with throughout this course work, is in charge of ordering the raw materials in which the business produces its product, this is vital as with-out the raw materials then the business would not be able to process the product or in other words, without the raw material Venetian Ices LTD would not be able to produce their ice cream and therefore will be unable to make a profit. The department is also in charge of designing the product along side the marketing section, the two sections try to work together to provide the best product available. This section of production also works together with the finance department in case of damaged machinery of any new material the business has to purchase, if there are any problems then the production manager would provide listings of new investments needed. The production department also have to work within laws of production, in order to make sure that when they produce their product they are abiding different laws which surround the business. This is an aspect of my course work which I have to research into, as I have to reveal to the Venetian Ices LTD directors which laws they have to abide by to produce ice cream. There are three main methods of production, job production, batch production and flow production. Job production is where products are made specifically to order, for example a tailor would make a new suit to match the consumer needs. In this method each order is different, and may or may not be repeated in the same way. Other examples specialist machinery manufacturers who would manufacture a machine for another business to meet particular specification. In this method the costumer is allowed to choose the exact requirements they wish to acquire, which is a distinct advantage. Also workers will proceed to become more motivated, as they get more job satisfaction because employees are not repeating there job over and over again, but instead are doing new requirements every time a new order occurs. However skilled labour is often needed, as employees have to be able to meet incalculable costumer requirements. This is not a method used by Venetian Ices LTD as they make many ice cream products for different supermarkets. One product for each market would not recoup enough profit nor meet supply and demand. Another production method is batch production, this is where similar products are made in blocks or batches. A certain number of another product is made, then another product is made and so on. Examples include when a baker makes one type of bread and then when that order is completed another design of bread is commences. Another example is that when a house design is made acceptable in a certain development area, that design is used several times and after that design is refined with, a new batch of houses is designed. This design is particularly useful as design transformations are easy to complete and progress. Furthermore motivation towards employees is also taken into account as they are not constantly completing the same procedure, but however there is more a variety in job production. For small businesses, this method would bring them to a disadvantage as raw material stock would need to be stored and warehouse space can often consume profits. This method may be used by Venetian Ices LTD in order to see if a new flavour or design fits in well with costumer needs and wants. By only producing a few amounts of their new products they will be able to test their product on the market without risking high values of cash. The last production method is the most continuous, the method is called Flow production. This method is often referred as mass production due to the heavy quantity of products being produced. The basic ingredients of the product are put together at separate levels as the pass different sectors of a production line. I.e. as each component moves along the production belt, another piece is added to the overall product. Large product quantities are made within this method and as a result of purchasing economies the business may buy materials below the average price of that certain material. By taking advantage of purchasing economies, the business can buy in bulk fore a much lower price, by buying each unit at a cheaper price it gives the business a greater benefit against smaller companies who may not buy in the same bulk amounts, as a result it enables the business to sell its product at a much less price, making their product more favourable in the eyes of the public. However research suggest that workers are hard to motivate under these circumstances, for the work is often boring and then same day in and day out. Another essential disadvantage is that high amounts of capital is needed to set up flow production machinery, which may discourage the directors of a business to venture in to this production method. The production function has to also choose the location of manufacturing for it is vital that the right selection of location is chosen. Shown below is a diagram of factors affecting the choice of location: Probably one of the most complicated sections is the finance department that is managed by John Hardy. This function has to be in charge of controlling financial transactions within all the business. It controls the transaction by budgeting and analysing a series of accounts, the analysation occurs is through many different accounts such as cash flow forecast, profit and loss accounts etc This function is important in the sale of a new product as without tracing the sales of a new product then there would be no record of increases or decreases, resulting in a risk of a business losing profit. Probably an extremely important aspect of this function is through the finance department making budgets in which the company has to cope with. It is vital that the company deals within a budget as without a budget, the company may over spend and come drowned in dept. This may leave the future of the company in doubt. The final section is the personnel department, this department deals with the employees, meaning it controls interviews with new employees, selecting staff for promotion, discipline within the company and who will receive bonuses for working well. As well as these responsibilities the function has the more important job of making sure the company workers are well motivated. They do this in many ways, a few of which are giving job perks company car, holidays, special bonuses and personnel problems in which the employees have to deal with. If however a vacancy occurs within a business, then it is the personnel departments responsibility to attract and recruit the most suitable and most qualified staff. If the recruitment process is not completed to the highest degree, then the company could be face with members of staff who are in capable of doing the job that they were employed to do. Also the personnel department is faced with the difficult job of the dismissal and redundancy making of staff. The reason why some members of staff may be faced with dismissal maybe because the company feel that that certain member of staff is not performing to the complete standards that they wished that member would work at. Or a member may be of a certain old age, where the company feel that that staff member is coming to an end of their career. Management responsibilities in different departments Human resources department *Forecasting staff needs for the business * Preparing job descriptions and job specifications * Planning staff training courses * Interviewing and selecting staff * Keeping staff records * Disciplining staff * Recruiting staff * Preparing job descriptions and job specifications * Planning staff training courses * Interviewing and selecting staff * Keeping staff records *Disciplining staff Marketing department * Market research * Planning new products * Keeping and extracting sales records * Deciding upon the best marketing mix strategy Finance department * Recording all financial transactions * Collecting and presenting financial data * Analysing the profitability of new investment projects * Keeping cashflow control * Preparing budgets for the business Production department * Ordering stock and materials * Developing and designing new products * Locating buildings in the most cost effective areas * Designing on production methods * Controlling production to ensure high levels of efficiency * Maintaining machinery * Making sure quality of products is of standard

frankenstein (not full) :: essays research papers

Differences and Similarities are used to emphasize certain aspects of things. This idea is commonly when a movie is made that is based on a book. The director of the movie may choose to keep details in his movie that adheres to the details in the book that the movie is based on. He may also choose to change some details from the book to what he perceives to be more fitting. In the case of Frankenstein the novel and the 1995 movie version of Mary Shelly?s Frankenstein, there were notable differences and similarities. The differences dealing with the education of the monster and the ending of the story, and similarity dealing with the turning point of the story help create a better understanding of this complex story. A notable difference between the book and the movie was the education of the Monster. They both focus around the Monster?s time spent watching the De Lacey?s. In the movie his time was devoted mostly to just watching the family and how they acted towards each other. He learned quite quickly how to speak and read and learned to understand the different emotions people possessed. The only justification of the Monster?s rapid learning process is that in a movie not a great deal of time can be spent on this or else the movie would drag on. Although not a lot of time was spent on showing the development of the Monster?s education in the movie, the book however went into great detail in describing its education. During his stay in the shack near the De Lacey?s cottage the Monster came across four books that would enlighten him and show the reader the learning of the Monster step by step. The first book was Volney?s Ruins of Empires.

International Institutions and Realism

Becky, Tam Hing Lui Prof. Chan Ding Ding GPEC 5002 Challenges to the Global System: Insecurity of the World 17 November 2012 HOW CAN INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS FACILITATE COOPERATION? WHAT WOULD A REALIST SAY ABOUT INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONS? Nations call for cooperation especially during and after crisis. One example was the Bretton Wood system created in 1944, with the purpose to revive the global economy after the serious damage in WWII. After the 2008 financial crisis, nations again asked for more international regulations and monitoring on the global financial system and suggested the â€Å"Bretton Wood II†.When we step back and think again, does the international regime facilitate cooperation between nations to solve global issues? The school of Liberalism puts more emphasis on the role of international institutions. Robert Keohane defined institutions as â€Å"persistent and connected sets of rules, both formal and informal, that prescribe behavioral roles, constrain a ctivity, and shape expectations† (1). By definition, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, World Trade Organization (WTO) are formal institution while Bretton Wood Agreement, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) are informal.Under the anarchy environment in the international platform, it is possible to facilitate cooperation through the establishment of international organizations by two specific features: Centralization and Independence (2). It is the independence and neutral characteristic of the international organizations that enhance the legitimacy of its actions, causing states willing to gather together and authorize the international organizations to centralize the activities and ultimately achieve cooperation. This reduces transaction costs and increase efficiency.Institutions coordinate activities including setting up forums and conferences, managing substantive operations, norm elaboration, neutral information provider, acting as trustee/arbiter, i ntervention and enforcement (2). We have identified 5 signature international institutions (IMF, World Bank, Bretton Wood System, GATT, WTO) as examples below to illustrate how the conduct of the above mentioned activities through the international organizations facilitate cooperation in the modern history. (I) IMF, World Bank, the Bretton Wood System and GATTBoth IMF and World Bank were established since the Bretton Wood system began. After WWII, countries suffered from poor economy as global production and trade were dampened during the war period. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, countries attempted to shore up their failing economies by sharply raising barriers to foreign trade, devaluing their currencies to compete against each other for export markets, and curtailing their citizens' freedom to hold foreign exchange. These attempts proved to be self-defeating. World trade declined sharply, and employment and living standards plummeted in many countries (3).There was st rong common interest amongst the states to boost up the economy. To facilitate trade and production, a stable monetary system is necessary and this is where the Bretton Wood system began. The US took the lead to stabilize the international monetary system by pegging USD into gold at a fixed rate (USD35 / ounce of gold) while the remaining 44 countries agreed to keep their exchange rates pegged to USD at rates that could be adjusted only to correct a â€Å"fundamental disequilibrium† in the balance of payments, and only with the IMF's agreement.The IMF therefore became the independent clearing house of the balance of payments and to ensure the exchange rate mechanism worked as specified. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), now the World Bank Group underwrite private loans to stimulate economy. Both the organizations obtained the legitimacy from their independence and neutrality hence was able to manage the substantive operations between states efficie ntly and effectively. Members in General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) agreed on reduction in tariffs and trade barriers amongst members.The GATT, unlike the IMF and World Bank, was not an independent organization but rather a forum within which countries met. This provides a platform for elites to negotiate and reach agreement and avoid conflicts and adverse competition. With the GATT rounds held between 1947 and 1967, most barriers have been removed and tariffs have been the lowest. With the Bretton Wood framework in place along with the newly established international institutions which provide free market, long term capital and stable monetary system, global trade and production exploded during the period.Over the first 25 postwar years, the volume of world trade doubled every 10 years (4). This has been proven as a successful international cooperation in the modern history. (II) World Trade Organization (WTO) Established under the Marrakech Agreement in 1995, the Geneva based WTO replaced GATT as the center of world trade system. Its core principles are to promote market liberalization, non-discrimination and provide legal structure for international trade. Same as GATT, it provides forum for trade negotiations and administers trade agreements.In addition, WTO also supplies mechanism through which governments may resolve trade disputes, review and propagate the national trade policies, provide useful data and information, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making. The Decision making process is transparent, rules based and members driven. Each member government has one vote. WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.The Dispute Settlement Board consists of the Appellate Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions (WTO website). According to WTO data, world merchandise exports worth over $5 trillion in 1998. In real terms, that represents an 18-fold increase over 1948. Exports of manufactures were 43 times larger than 50 years earlier. Over the same period, world output grew 8-fold, and world production of manufactures 10-fold. It is the independent and fair decision making process and the neutral dispute settlement mechanism given the legitimacy of WTO to attract members.The monitoring role and dispute settlement mechanism allow states to overcome â€Å"market failures† in international relations. Hence WTO can fully perform its functions to facilitate cooperation in order to promote trade. From the above examples, international institutions while maintaining independence and neutrality, promote states cooperation and achieve objectives by increasing the efficiency of collective activities, reducing conflicts, facilitating communications and negotiatio n and implementation of agreements. Realist a had different interpretation in the role of these international institutions.Traditional realists recognize that institutions are a vital part of the landscape of world politics. Traditional realism assess the effectiveness of institutions in 2 ways (5): [A] Institution as tools of empowerment enable hagemon to rule others and to manage regional and world affairs more effectively and efficiently than would be possible in their absence. [B] Institution as constraint such as balance of power politics and Concert diplomacy guide and direct Great Power behavior in accordance with the established rules of the game. We will continue with the example of 1944 Bretton Wood System to illustrate the above 2 points below.Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, the architect of the Bretton Wood System, was disappointed by the final evolution of the Bretton Woods institutions, for Keynes believed that the politicians were perverting the original i deas. The final design guaranteed predominance of the US due to various reasons including emphasis on USD by linking all currencies to USD, dominance of US power in the weighted percentage vote in IMF. However, this is inevitable in the realities of power politics as US was the lender while rest of the world were the borrower and US was the only superpower at that time.This explained the point A above that the hagemon (US) dominance to rule others and able to manage the international trade and monetary system more effectively and efficiently by putting the states into the Bretton Wood agreement and establishment of the institutions. The US and other states were constrained within the agreement and monitoring by the institutions as described in the above point B. While US constrained the other states by the guaranteed predominance in the system, US at the same time was constrained by losing its freedom on domestic policy as USD is pegged at a fixed rate to gold.Neorealists tend to do wnplay the role of institutions on cooperation. John Mearsheimer described international institution as â€Å"a set of rules that stipulate the ways in which states should cooperate and compete with one another† and claims that institutions â€Å"matter only on the margins† and â€Å"have minimal influence on state behavior† (6). Structural realists in the Waltzian vein also paid little attention to international institutions. Neorealists argue that institution cause states to behave in ways they otherwise would not behave, for example foregoing short term, self interest in favor of long-term community goals (Jervis 1983).In contrast, neoliberals claim that institutions matter because they enable states to do things they otherwise could not do, that is, achieve mutual gains from cooperation. Neorealists conceptualize institutions as constraints on state behavior; neoliberals see them as enabling states to reach mutually beneficial, cooperative outcomes. Neoreali sts emphasis on relative gains distribution amongst the actors within the institutions, while Neoliberals emphasis on maximizing overall absolute gains obtained in the community.The first point made by neorealists on the role of international institutions is â€Å"the emphasis on relative gains among actors could critically inhibit international cooperation†. Therefore, they may sometimes abstain from cooperation even when it would be beneficial for them in absolute terms. The overall result is that international institutions are more difficult to create and harder to maintain than neoliberals would have to believe. The likelihood for an institution to be put in place and to be stable is the greatest when the expected gains are balanced such that relative losses do not accrue (7).Without a higher power, states must worry about any state gaining a relative advantage through cooperation, because â€Å"today’s friend may be tomorrow’s enemy in war† (8). Just like what we have seen today, most of the institutions were first led by US as a higher power. States not only concern about cheating but also worry over the distribution of relative gains must be overcome for cooperation to blossom. One example would be the refusal of states to join the binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries in the second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol at UN climate talk in November 2011.While the biggest emitting countries – US, China and India refused to join, the existing countries in Kyoto Protocol, including Canada, Japan and Russia have already refused to sign on for a second commitment period, objecting to the lack of legal constraints on the world’s biggest carbon polluters. Europe says it can accept a continuation, provided China and the United States show they are serious about major cuts in the coming years. This evidenced when there is relative gains distribution issue and worries on cheating, cooperation is not possible.The second point is that â€Å"institutions are epiphenomenal, that they merely reflect power and interest† (9). They challenge the Independence of the international institutions. Institutions existed but do not mitigate in any way the anarchy of the international system and is the same world of power politics familiar to realists – institutions represented by powerful to serve their interests, and they are dissolved when power and interest shift. To illustrate, we will continue with the example of Bretton Wood system.During the late stage of Bretton Wood system, US power was declining as relied heavily on deficit spending while the other states growing surplus and gaining economic power. The intrinsic value of USD was declining due to deficit spending, over-investment outside US, spending on maintaining the military bases and the two wars US was fighting (Vietnam War and the large increase in social spending known as the War on Poverty) (4). While USD was officially pegged to gold at USD35 per ounce, USD was overvalued and investors and governments rushed to sell USD for gold.From 1961 until 1968, 7 billion dollars was cashed in, which took up more than 40% of US gold reserve. In 1971, US announced stopping the conversion of USD into gold and devaluation of USD. After the second devaluation of USD in 1973, all the states quitted the fixed exchange rate system and hence the Bretton Wood system officially collapsed since then together with the significantly reduced importance of IMF and World Bank. In my opinion, both schools of thoughts are important to explain different matters in different scenario.There is no one single answer towards whether international institutions facilitate cooperation or the opposite. As explained with the example of Bretton Wood system throughout the whole article, both liberal institutionalism and realism explained the setup of the system from different perspective while realism explained the end of th e cooperation. It appears that the effective cooperation induced by institutions is more transient in nature while power politics between the states is driving the backbone of the story.I believe realist view on international institution is more relevant to explain many of the critical outcomes in modern history. However, with globalization becomes the main theme of 21st century, role of state is diminishing as the dominance of multinational corporations does not preclude the characters of state. This creates more common interests between states, which make cooperation easier. The role of international institutions may be gradually enhanced and we may reach another conclusion. Works Cited 1. Keohane, Robert O. International lnstitutions and State Power: Essays in International Theory.Boulder: Westview Press, 1989 2. Abbott Kenneth and Snidal Duncan. The Oxford Handbook of International Relations, Ch. 11 , â€Å"Why States Act through Formal International Organizations. † Jour nal of Conflict Resolution. , 1998 3. IMF website. Cooperation and reconstruction (1944–71) http://www. imf. org/external/about/histcoop. htm 4. Frieden Jeffrey A. Global Capitalism Its Fall and Rise in the Twentieth Century. United States of America: Norton Paperback 2007 5. Schweller Randall and Priess David. A Tale of Two Realisms: Expanding the Institutions Debate.Mershon International Studies Review, Vol. 41, No. 1 (May, 1997), pp. 1-32 6. Mearsheimer, John. The False Promise of International Institutions. International Security. 1994/95 19(3):5-49. 7. Hasenclever Andreas, Mayer Peter and Rittberger Volker. Integrating Theories of International Regimes. Review of International Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1 (Jan. , 2000), pp. 3-33 8. Grieco, Joseph M. , Powell Robert, and Nidal Duncans. The Relative-Gains Problem for International Cooperation. American Political Science Review 1993 87:729-743. 9. Stein Arthur A. Neoliberal Institutionalism Chapter 11 p. 206